Body image and satisfaction of women Essay Example

to a sample group.

The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of body dissatisfaction on the eating habits of young adult women from Generation Y who have lived in Malaysia for at least one year. This requirement ensures that they have developed specific eating patterns.

Reviewing Existing Literature

Existing literature suggests that humans are composed of three components: mind, soul, and body. Each component requires proper care and attention, emphasizing the importance of the body in people's lives.

It is crucial to maintain the proper functioning and upkeep of the human body in order to carry out daily activities. When a specific body part malfunctions, it can greatly affect one's everyday life. Therefore, prioritizing the maintenance of a healthy body is essential. The understanding of the human body varies due to genetic factors and societal perceptions referred to as body image.

This text examines how the body is a cultural construct. It proposes that individuals internally form their own perception of their physical selves, while society's ideals of the perfect body have changed over time. The text also highlights that women tend to prioritize their bodies more than men do and that societal standards define attractiveness as being thin for women. This suggests that women's ideas of beauty are influenced by societal norms. Aesthetic appearance, which has long been a significant concern, motivates women to devote considerable effort to self-care.

According to Hesse-Biber (1989), the pressure to be thin is communicated through media exposure (Nemeroff et al.,1994; Stice, 1994; Tiggemann, 2002) and cultural and societal factors (Grogan, 2008; Fitzgibbon et al.,2000). The media also plays a pervasive and influential role in portraying an unattainable

thin ideal for women (Nemeroff et al.,1994; Stice, 1994; Tiggemann, 2002), which unconsciously manipulates the concept of an ideal body for women (Malkin et al., 1999; Silverstein et al., 1986).

Dittmar et al. (2009) argue that different media platforms, including TV shows, magazines, the internet, and ads, play a role in promoting an unrealistic and unreachable standard of beauty that can have negative effects. This influence is clearly seen in the fashion industry's growth as society gains more buying power and control over fashion matters.

According to Juhaeri et al. (2002), women generally place a greater emphasis on their bodies in relation to fashion compared to men. They recognize that simply following fashion trends is not sufficient and that achieving an ideal appearance involves both fashionable clothing and a well-maintained physique. Societal norms and personal body image play a significant role in determining what constitutes an attractive body.

(Hesse-Biber et al.,1999) Throughout history, the perception of body image has always been predominantly centered around females. This evaluation of body image has resulted in various issues such as dissatisfaction with one's own body. This discontentment with physical appearance has consequently given rise to significant problems like binge eating, low self-esteem, and eating disorders, especially among women. Blyth et al. observed this phenomenon in 1985 and it continues to be prevalent, as confirmed by Tiggeman et al.

(2009): "The dissatisfaction with the form and weight of women's bodies is widely documented. When attempting to achieve the ideal body, women face societal pressure to be thin. This pressure is primarily directed towards women, resulting in increased weight loss activities and concerns about weight."

The pursuit of weight loss in adult females can lead

to medical conditions such as anorexia nervosa and binge-eating syndrome, as stated by Fitzgibbon et al. (2000). The dissatisfaction with their bodies and body image among women has been extensively studied both medically and psychologically since the 1960s. However, there is a dearth of recent research on body dissatisfaction and eating patterns.

Evolution of Women's Perception of the Ideal Body

The perception of the ideal body has evolved over time. In earlier eras, obesity and having a rounded tummy were regarded as indicators of fertility (Fallon, 1990).

In the past, adult women commonly had fuller figures, but this changed in the 20th century when slender bodies became fashionable. During this time, paintings often portrayed women with round stomachs and larger bodies, selecting only those deemed to have an ideal physique as subjects.

Regarding Olympia (1863), which was seen as Edouard Manet's masterpiece, it featured a model with a rounded stomach and plumper body, yet it faced criticism in 1865 for not being sufficiently plump to be considered provocative (Grogan, 2008). Furthermore, in the past, extremely thin bodies were seen as indicative of poverty and disease. A similar portrayal of idealized chubby women before the 20th century can also be observed in Rembrandt's Bathsheba (1654) and Renoir's Blonde Bather (1881).

These pictures show the round belly shape of adult females at that time. This proves that being plump was once considered ideal. Additionally, during that era, being plump not only indicated an ideal body, but also represented wealth. However, over time, human perceptions and preferences have also changed.

Beginning:

a) Rembrandt Bathsheba - Google Image
b) Renoir, Blonde Bather - Google Image
Furthermore, during the 1960s and 1980s, the coveted ideal body

became increasingly slender with tanned skin, as Time Magazine's article in 1982 stated that being slim and fit is the new desired beauty standard, using Jane Fonda and Victoria Principal as examples.

Beginning:

a) Left - Jane Fonda
b) Right - Victoria Principal
Since then, the ideal female body has been depicted as slim. The media began to promote the Caucasian beauty standard through glossy magazines and other forms of media. Consequently, slenderness has become increasingly prevalent in society and many women strive to obtain this slender figure. It should be noted that an individual's development is greatly influenced by their culture.

Many researchers have agreed that societal and cultural pressures are one of the reasons why women feel the need to be thin (Hesse-Biber et al., 1987; Hesse-Biber, 1989; Rosenblum and Lewis, 1999). However, British Dietician Tom Sanders argues that being slightly overweight can have positive health effects for women. Being slightly plumper can prevent early menopause, heart disease, and osteoporosis compared to slender women.

According to Grogan (2008), the health benefits of being overweight have been overlooked due to bias against overweight individuals (Sanders and Bazelgette, 1994). Overweight people are often depicted as lazy, unhealthy, and deserving of harassment and mockery (Lewis et al., 1997; Teachman and Brownell, 2001; Grogan and Richards, 2002; Greenleaf et al.).

Grogan (2008) claims that individuals who are overweight are often seen as less active, intelligent, hardworking, successful, athletic, and popular compared to those who have a slimmer physique. This viewpoint is supported by Hesse-Biber et al. (1999). According to Cash (1990), people with excess weight face challenges when it comes to renting properties, getting into prestigious colleges, and finding employment.

Additionally, being overweight is closely linked to perceptions of laziness, lack of self-control, and a lack of control over one's life (Grogan, 2008).

Grogan (2008) claims that being thin is often associated with happiness, success, youthfulness, and social acceptability. According to Rosenblum and Lewis (2000), people are treated differently based on their appearance. For instance, attractive babies are considered more popular by their peers (Bull and Rumsay, 1988; Kleck et al., 1974), receive more attention (Adams, 1977; Langlois, 1986), and are seen as more competent by their teachers (Lerner et al., 1990). In dating situations, attractive adults are treated favorably (Duran, 1973) and perceived to receive more assistance from others (Benson et al.

According to Weits (2001), adult women who are considered attractive are more likely to be popular and marry men with higher socioeconomic status. This attractiveness also translates to the workplace, where attractive women have better chances of being hired, promoted, and earning higher wages. All these positive experiences can be attributed to the slender ideal, which drives individuals, especially women, to strive for an ideal body shape. The slim figure is widely seen as attractive and desirable, leading people to pursue thinness in order to meet society's expectations of the perfect body. Those who do not conform to this standard face bias throughout their lives, including from their own families (Hesse-Biber, 1999; Grogan, 2008).

There are several cultural ideas of ideal beauty, with the most popular one adopted by adult females being the Caucasic (Western) beauty standard (Cash and Henry, 1995; Polivy et al., 1986; Wiseman et al., 1992). According to Hesse-Biber (1989), the ideal body has been westernized and women now aspire to be

thinner than ever before. Additionally, Rosenblum and Lewis (1999) and Fitzgibbon et al. suggest that...

(2000) stated that the widely accepted cultural ideals of beauty are ultra-thin and slim bodies, following the standards set by white cultures. This ideal of having a super thin body has been deeply ingrained in people's minds for a long time. This widely spread ideal of beauty significantly shapes young women's personal ideals and how they perceive their own bodies. However, women's perception of the ideal body is also influenced by their peers, family, and the preferences of the opposite sex (Casanova, 2004).

According to him as well, the conception of beauty as an appealing and above-average appearance leads girls to strive for a thinner body than they currently have (Rosenblum and Lewis, 1999). This is influenced by the globalization of media, which exposes society and culture to the ideal of a slender body. This creates an invisible pressure, especially on women, encouraging them to be attractive and thin. As a result, many women today are pursuing a thin body, causing them to easily feel dissatisfied with their own bodies. In contrast to this increasingly thin beauty ideal, real women are actually getting heavier, widening the gap between their actual body sizes and the ideals depicted in images (Dittmar, 2008; Spitzer et al.).

In 1988, Brodie and Slade found that the desire to diet was associated with a growing discrepancy between desired body size and actual body size. This discrepancy resulted in dissatisfaction with their bodies, leading women to engage in various dieting behaviors. These behaviors encompassed excessive food restriction, use of laxatives or water pills, excessive exercise, and erratic eating patterns like

binge eating, bulimia, and anorexia (Brodie & Slade, 1988).

In addition to widely embraced white women's beauty standards worldwide, other cultures also have their own beauty ideals. For example, Latino women have their own ideals (Fitzgibbon, 2000), as well as African American women (Casanova, 2004).

Black adult females, as mentioned by Fitzgibbon (2000), exhibit higher levels of body satisfaction and favor a more substantial body image when compared to white adult females. This suggests that black women do not adhere to the slender ideal established by white women in terms of their perceived beauty standard. Despite not aligning with the media's depiction of thinness, black women remain satisfied with their bodies. Additionally, there are noticeable differences in beauty standards between black and white women, with African American perspectives being characterized by greater flexibility.

(Parker et al., 1995) discovered that black adult females have higher rates of body dissatisfaction at higher BMI compared to white adult females. In their journal article "The Relationship between Body Image Discrepancy and Body Mass Index across Ethnic Group," Fitzgibbon et al. (2000) mentioned that black adult females generally do not experience dissatisfaction with their bodies until they reach an overweight status.

According to Parker et al. (1995), individuals derive satisfaction from their natural bodies by embracing the concept of "doing what works for them." In contrast, Tiggeman et al. (2009) have demonstrated that comparing oneself to media ideals can lead to negative impacts on mood, body dissatisfaction, and self-perception of physical attractiveness. Furthermore, black women tend to receive more supportive and positive feedback from their peers compared to white women. Sadly, in the case of white women, competition and envy towards thin peers often

prevail, sometimes leading to derogatory labels such as 'bitch' or 'slut' (Parker et al.).

In a study conducted in 1995, it was found that media has a lesser impact on influencing black adult females compared to factors like equals and household influences (Casanova, 2004). Black women tend to believe that black men are more attracted to heavier bodies in romantic partners, resulting in a higher satisfaction level with a higher BMI rate. Additionally, African American women acknowledge their inability to meet white beauty standards, leading them to disregard or even reject these standards.

According to Casanova (2004), Latino women have their own beauty standards, which are influenced by white beauty ideals. While white standards favor a thin body, Latino women (from Ecuador, Columbia, Mexico, and the US Latina) believe that a desirable body should be curvy. In Ecuador, in particular, beauty is defined as being busty and shapely rather than being extremely slim. This cultural preference is so ingrained that even a 6-year-old girl stated that ideal women should "have hips and a chest".

According to Casanova, 2004, achieving an acceptable appearance in Latina culture involves efforts, expression of style, and careful arrangement. Latino women believe that there are no ugly women, only ones who are poorly groomed. They can improve their physical self-presentation through efforts. Like black women, Latino women have a higher rate of body satisfaction compared to white women.

Black people, like white adult females, place less importance on a slender body type than it is currently valued. Additionally, they are more inclined to reject the media's portrayal of ideal beauty. Black individuals do not find the media's distorted image suitable for their own bodies and

refuse to judge themselves based on these unrealistic standards (Milkie, 1999; Myers and Biocca, 1992). When asked why they do not compare themselves to these ideals, their response is, "The media has more experience and resources than us."

According to Casanova (2004), comparing themselves to the ideal portrayed in the media is seen as denying their true selves by both black and Latino women. Similar to black women, Latino women are influenced more by their peers when it comes to body image rather than the media. They support each other and this helps to boost their self-esteem, leading to higher satisfaction with their bodies (Duke, 2000; Parker et al., 1995; Casanova, 2004).

While black and Latino adult females have a higher level of body satisfaction compared to white women, there are still some black and Latino women who are not satisfied with their bodies.

Media as a Medium

Media is closely intertwined with daily human life, serving as a reflection of human existence. It cannot be separated from human life as it plays multiple roles in society. It helps disseminate the latest news, serves as a source of entertainment and education, and even acts as a medium for enticing advertisements. Undoubtedly, media holds significant power of influence and remains an integral part of every individual's life.

Media plays a significant role in shaping people's perception, often visualizing an ideal body image that may be consciously or unconsciously adopted by individuals (Franco, 2001). It is widely recognized that media heavily contributes to women's dissatisfaction with their bodies by presenting an unrealistic and unattainable thin ideal (Malkin et al., 1999; Silverstein et al., 1986).

In 2004, Casanova made a powerful statement: "media are

the most important determiners of abstract ideals of beauty." This statement is evidence that media holds a significant influence in shaping women's perception of their own bodies. The substantial power of influence is often blamed for the high prevalence of eating disorders and poor body image among teenage girls (Duke, 2000; Lovejoy, 2001; Parker et al., 1995).

The negative effects were previously examined by Tiggemann, Polivy, and Hargreaves (2009) when women began comparing themselves to media images. After comparing, they often feel inadequate, resulting in negative mood and body dissatisfaction (Major et al., 1991; Bessenoff, 2006; Tiggemann and McGill, 2004; Tiggemann and Slater, 2004). Fashion and beauty magazines were identified as the main source and promoter of the unrealistic thin ideal for women (Malkin et al., 1999; Silverstein et al., 1986).

However, survey results indicate that adult females continue to purchase fashion and beauty magazines. Their primary reasons for buying these magazines include seeking entertainment, obtaining fashion and grooming tips, engaging in social learning, and comparing themselves to the images portrayed in the magazine.

Furthermore, media serves as a tool for societal control by compelling conformity to a universal standard of the ideal body image (Franco, 2001). The perception of beauty and thinness, portrayed through the body, is directly influenced by societal norms (Bordo, 1989; Brook, 1999; Butler, 1993; Grosz, 1994). This widespread promotion of the thin beauty ideal is pervasive and largely embraced (Nemeroff et al., 1994; Stice, 1994; Tiggemann, 2002).

According to Thompson et al. (1999), adult females are now pursuing the thin ideal as their personal goal. They employ various methods, ranging from healthy approaches to unhealthy ones, in order to achieve this goal. For example,

they engage in regular exercise and reduce their food intake. However, some resort to extreme measures such as fasting, over-restrictive dieting, and the use of laxatives/diuretics and excessive exercise (Fitzgibbon et al., 2000; Rosenblum and Lewis, 1999). In the most extreme cases, they turn to drug use, smoking, and cosmetic surgery (Wykes and Gunter, 2005).

Body Dissatisfaction and Eating Patterns

It is well-known that society has had a significant influence on people's perception of body image. Society promotes an ideal body type that is unattainable, yet it still plays a major role in determining what is considered ideal or not. When individuals' current body does not align with the perceived ideal, body dissatisfaction arises (Fitzgibbon et al., 2000).

Research has shown that body dissatisfaction in adult females can begin at a young age, as early as 12 years old (Rosenblum and Lewis, 1999). During the ages of 13 to 15, adolescent girls believe that their bodies undergo a shift due to physical growth (Rosenblum and Lewis, 1999). This leads to increased focus on their bodies when they reach the age of 15 (Green and McKenna, 1993; Rauste von-Wright, 1989). According to Franzoi, Kessenick and Surgue (1989), women tend to assess their bodies on a part-by-part basis.

The measurement of body image focuses on specific parts of the body, such as the breasts, hips, and thighs (Davies and Furnham, 1986). These parts are often compared to others, and when women feel they are lacking in these areas, body dissatisfaction occurs. Body dissatisfaction among women has been a longstanding issue in society (Tiggeman et al., 2009). The pressure from culture to be thin is a major

contributing factor to this dissatisfaction.

According to Hesse-Biber (1989), it is evident that adult females are concerned about their weight and strive to be thin. These women feel pressured to conform to the global beauty standards. Hesse-Biber et al. noted in 1987 that low body weight was already a criterion for women's attractiveness, and it remains true that societal pressure for thinness is primarily targeted towards women.

It is also believed that organic body dissatisfaction is a significant factor driving women to strive for thinness, which can be triggered by societal pressure (Smith, 1987). Additionally, research has found that college students often develop eating disorders as a response to the cultural pressure to be thin (Hesse-Biber, 1989). Childhood experiences and parental influence play a major role in shaping an individual's eating patterns. Nonetheless, various studies have identified multiple factors that can influence an individual's eating habits.

When it comes to the causes of eating disorders, some originate in the household, particularly in the relationships with the mother (Chernin, 1986; Orbach, 1986; Pike and Rodin, 1991) and father (Maine, 1991). Another factor is the family's diet and history of obesity (Steiger et al., 1995). A person's eating patterns are developed in childhood and are greatly influenced by parental control over feeding and imposed restrictions (Faith et al.

According to several studies, both genetic and environmental factors influence the eating habits of children. Research has shown that children learn their eating patterns from their parents, including the tendency to eat for emotional reasons or use food as a reward. This suggests that parents who engage in emotional eating and use food as a reward are likely to pass on these behaviors

to their children, which can contribute to childhood obesity.

There are also self-internal factors, which include self concept fighting (Baird and Sights, 1986; Hese-Biber and Marino, 1991; Stein, 1996; Timko, 1987), control issues (Bruch, 1973; Siegel et al., 1988), sensitivity towards dependence (Woodman, 1982), the demand of flawlessness (Levenkron, 1983; Siegel et al., 1988), and sexual/physical injury (Root, 1991; Wooley and Lewis, 1988). Additionally, women with low self esteem often have problematic feeding patterns and distorted body image (Beren and Chrisler, 1990; Brouwers, 1988; Holleran et al.).

, 1988; Koff and Rierdan, 1990; McCanne, 1985; Mintz and Betz, 1988; Sanford and Donovan, 1985; Segal and Figley, 1985) . Women with higher self-esteem often have better self-image, leading to healthier eating habits. However, teenage girls are heavily influenced by unrealistic beauty standards, resulting in body dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, and unhealthy eating behaviors.

Women's Self Image

Self-image is connected to self-concept, self-esteem, and self-worth. These factors are influenced by cultural development within families, acceptance from society and peers, and internal comparisons to media images. Therefore, self-image is developed both internally and externally through various influences.

Other studies have found that the development of body image is greatly influenced by self-body rating, personal outlook, and perceived ratings of one's surroundings (Lerner, 1987; Sorrel and Nowak, 1981; Thomas and Chess, 1981). Additionally, body image is related to self-worth, self-acceptance, and self-confidence within society (Harter, 1990; Hesse-Biber et al., 1987), making it a significant factor. Furthermore, self-perceived body image indirectly serves as a dominant stimulus for societal evaluation of attractiveness and self-evaluation of attractiveness (Cash et al., 1988; Franzoi and Herzog, 1987; Lerner, 1987). This is particularly true for women, as their bodies are one

component in assessing attractiveness.

Usually, adult females will assess their bodies by comparing them to others, whether it be their friends or their ideal role models. When they discover noticeable differences, this is when body dissatisfaction arises (Major et al., 1991). Additionally, women's expectations regarding their ideal bodies are mainly influenced by culture, society, and media. According to Hesse-Biber et al. (1999), "Images of idealized beautiful women significantly impact young women's personal ideals and body image; other influential factors include peers and family."

"By examining information provided by civilization, society, and media, women develop their own perspective. When this perspective does not align with their current bodies, dissatisfaction with their bodies arises. Women's bodies and appearance elicit reactions from their surroundings, and these reactions are then internally processed, influencing how these women perceive themselves" (Burns and Farina, 1992; Sorrell and Nowak, 1981). Additionally, Casanova (2004) states that comments from peers are the most influential factor in shaping ideas about appearance and feelings of attractiveness.

The perception of one's body image is heavily influenced by self-image, which is shaped by various factors including media, culture, and peers. When an adult female receives negative comments about her body after gaining weight, she is immediately motivated to lose weight. This self-image not only impacts how women perceive their own bodies but also affects different aspects of their lives.

Research Hypotheses

Hypothesis 1: Women have a very thin ideal body role model, leading to dissatisfaction with their bodies despite having an ideal BMI.

Hypothesis 2: Women have a distorted body image, resulting in body dissatisfaction even if they have an ideal body.

Hypothesis 3: Women who are dissatisfied with their bodies experience various negative consequences.